Penda
The great pagan king of Mercia
The most fascinating thing about the great Mercian king Penda, is that all we know about him comes from the people who lived in the kingdoms surrounding Mercia. Unlike Ælfrǣd the Great, who had a contemporary account of his reign written by the Welsh monk, and later Bishop of Sherborne, Asser - which I know is a debated source - there is nothing like this for Penda. While we can piece together his reign from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and the Ecclesiastical History of the English People by Northumbrian monk and historian the Venerable Bede, there is a tantalising, enigmatic aspect to Penda’s reign yet he was the catalyst of Mercia’s most dominating period between 630 and 918.
For me, Penda feels like a looming shadow. Whenever I look into Mercia in any capacity all roads lead back to this pagan king who was incredibly successful in battle and almost toppled the strong Northumbrian supremacy of the time. It is incredible how he stood firm in his pagan beliefs and accepted Christianity but didn’t convert in a time when it was beginning develop and expand it’s foothold across the heptarchy*. Alongside this he was a remarkable, brutal war leader and astute politician. Yet, despite being one of the most influential and important kings of the Anglo-Saxon period he’s talked about the least - in my experience anyway, I imagine the North Hertfordshire based Swords of Penda/Children of Loki would disagree with me.
Early Life & the Beginning of His Reign
Like many people from this far back in history, their early life ultimately remains open to speculation or is simply destined to remain unknown. However, Penda was a son of Pybba of Mercia and said to be an Icling - a dynasty of Mercian kings during the 7th and 8th centuries, named for Icel or Icil, great-grandson of Offa of Angel, a legendary or semi-legendary figure of the Migration Period. Penda allegedly has a lineage purportedly extending back to Wōden (Óðinn). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle gives his descent as follows:
Penda was Pybba’s offspring, Pybba was Cryda’s offspring, Cryda Cynewald’s offspring, Cynewald Cnebba’s offspring, Cnebba Icel’s offspring, Icel Eomer’s offspring, Eomer Angeltheow’s offspring, Angeltheow Offa’s offspring, Offa Wermund’s offspring, Wermund Wihtlæg’s offspring, Wihtlæg Woden’s offspring.
Pybba is said to have had 12 sons, however only Penda and his brother Eowa are the most well known. He is also said to have another notable brother named Coenwalh, from whom two later kings were said to descend - although this may instead represent his brother-in-law Cenwalh of Wessex.
The time of Penda’s ascension to king is uncertain. This is due to another Merican king, Cearl (who may have been a kinsman of Pybba), who is stated by Bede to be ruling at the same time as the Northumbrian king Æthelfrith - more on him later - in the early part of the 7th-Century. Whether Penda immediately succeeded Cearl is unknown, despite this, Penda became king in 626, ruled for 30 years, and was 50 years old at the time of his accession. According to the noted 20th-Century historian Sir Frank Stenton, Penda became king after the defeat of Edwin of Northumbria (more on that in a bit) in 633. Even so, given the apparent problems with the dates given by the Chronicle and the Historia, it is generally accepted that Bede’s account of the length of Penda's reign is the most plausible by historians.
The Battle of Hatfield Chase & Alliance with Cadwallon
Bede, in the Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum states that Penda:
"a most warlike man of the royal race of the Mercians"
His warlike manner is something that he has become famous for - alongside his paganism and acceptance of Christianity in Mercia. It started pretty early on in his career. In the late 620s/early 630s, Cadwallon ap Cadfan, the Welsh king of Gwynedd, became involved in a war with Edwin of Northumbria, who was Bretwalda** at the time. The Welsh king was initially unsuccessful, so allied himself with Penda - who was thought to be the lesser partner in this alliance. They defeated Edwin at the Battle of Hatfield Chase in 633, and the Northumbrian king was killed. This is thought to have been that catalyst of Penda’s rise to the Mercian throne. Manuscript E of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle goes on to state that Cadwallon and Penda went on to ravage “the whole land” of the Northumbrians.
While Cadwallon undoubtedly continued the war against Northumbria, going on to fight the famed King Oswald. However, the continuation of Penda’s involvement is uncertain. It is believed that Penda might have withdrawn from the war at some point before the defeat and death of Cadwallon at the Battle of Heavenfield in 634, since he was not present at this battle. It is thought that Penda withdrew as a war hero after Hatfield in order to consolidate his newly gained status amongst the Mercians, which would allow him start his reign with a string foundation of public favour.
King Oswald of Northumbria & the Battle of Maserfield
Upon Edwin’s death at Hatfield at the hands of Cadwallon, Oswald became king of Northumbria. The Battle of Heavenfield, near modern day Hexham, was a defining early moment in Oswald’s reign as he rose to supremacy north of the River Humber. It is presumed that Penda acknowledged Oswald’s authority in some sense after Heavenfield, yet Penda was also an obstacle to Northumbrian supremacy south of the Humber. With that in mind, Oswald wielded the same power as Edwin but faced a far more entrenched challenge in the Midlands. It was only a matter of time before it all came to a head.
At some point in Oswald’s reign, Penda had Edwin’s son Eadfrith killed. This could have been a result from pressure exerted by Oswald, as Eadfrith could have harnessed Mercian power and rose up against Oswald. On the other hand, Penda might have killed Eadfrith for his own reasons. One suggestion is that Penda was concerned that Eadfrith could be a threat to him, as he reckoned that Eadfrith might seek vengeance for the deaths of his father and brother - it is also possible that Mercian dynastic rivalry played a part in the killing, because Eadfrith was a grandson of Penda’s predecessor Cearl.
During this time, Penda fought with the East Angles. He defeated them and killed their current king Egric and the former king Sigebert - who, according to Bede, had been brought out of retirement in a monastery against his will, this was due to the belief that his presence would motivate the soldiers. The battle potentially took place between 640 and 641, on the presumption that it happened before the battle of Maserfield. This may have been an expression of Penda's ambition. His emerging power made Oswald feel that Penda had to be defeated for Northumbrian dominance in southern England and for this domination to be secured and consolidated.
According to the Historia Brittonum and the Annales Cambriae Penda's brother Eowa was said to be king at this time. My theory would suggest that he was a sub-king, as this was common practice during the period. Even so, what sort of relationship of power existed between the two brothers is a matter of speculation. Alongside my theory it is also possible that Penda and Eowa ruled jointly during the 630s and early 640s. It wasn’t uncommon among Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of the period to have a joint kingship.
The Battle of Maserfield
One of the most significant battles of Penda’s career was Maserfield. Things had come to an inevitable head between Mercia and Northumbria, with both sides taking the field on the 5th August 642. Penda would defeat the Northumbrians, and king Oswald was killed in the process. Surviving Welsh poetry suggests that Penda fought in alliance with the men of Powys - which is something that he did consistently throughout his career. This alliance potentially Prince of Powys, Cynddylan ap Cyndrwyn.
The traditional site for the battle is Oswestry, Shropshire. If this is correct, then this would indicate that it was Oswald who had taken the offensive against Penda. According to Clare Stancliffe in her book Oswald: Northumbrian King to European Saint (1995), Oswald was reacting to "a threat posed to his domination of Mercia by a hostile alliance of Penda and Powys." After the battle, according to Bede, Oswald's body was dismembered, with his head, hands, and arms being placed onto stakes - which could have been of pagan significance. Oswald came to be revered as a saint because of this, his death in battle as a Christian king against pagans leading him to be regarded as a martyr. Penda’s brother Eowa was also killed at Maserfield but it is unsure which side he fought on, he could have supported Penda or looked to gain power in Mercia for himself with the support of Oswald.
What is clear though, is that Penda severed the dominance of Northumbria over Mercia and gained a degree of power which was unprecedented for a Mercian king. As a result of Maserfield, Northumbria was greatly weakened. Internally, the kingdom became fractured and split into its two constituent kingdoms; Deira in its southern part and Bernicia in the north, with the Deirans acquiring a king of their own, Oswine, while in Bernicia, Oswald was succeeded by his brother, Oswiu.
Between Maserfield and Winwaed
This defeat for Northumbria at Maserfield would have also weakened their influence over Wessex. The new West Saxon king Cenwealh, who was also a pagan king, was married to Penda's sister. However, this marriage didn’t last long and Cenwealh “repudiated” Penda's sister in favour of another wife. Having been insulted, Penda drove Cenwealh into exile in East Anglia in 645. Cenwealh remained for three years before regaining power.
Nine years later in 654, Penda would kill King Anna, the East Anglian king that harboured Cenwealh. He was succeeded by a brother, Æthelhere. This could be Penda taking advantage of the resulting internal struggles that killing Anna would have brought. In turn, Penda could have made war against the East Angles with the intention of securing Mercian dominance over the area of Middle Anglia. The latter kingdom, Penda would establish his son Peada as ruler.
There was also no love lost for Northumbria, Penda waged war against Oswiu of Bernicia in his own territory. Before the death of Lindisfarne’s Bishop Aidan on 31st August 651, Bede states that Penda “cruelly ravaged the country of the Northumbrians far and near” and besieged the royal Bernician stronghold of Bamburgh. Although he couldn’t capture Bamburgh, he put what he could to the sword.
It was during this time that Penda showed his tolerance towards Christianity, with Bede stating:
“Nor did King Penda obstruct the preaching of the word among his people, the Mercians, if any were willing to hear it; but, on the contrary, he hated and despised those whom he perceived not to perform the works of faith, when they had once received the faith, saying, ‘They were contemptible and wretched who did not obey their God, in whom they believed.’ This was begun two years before the death of King Penda.”
Even his son Paeda converted to Christianity, and Penda showed no evidence of interfering. Although, I am inclined to believe Nicholas Higham’s theory that the conversion was more for political manoeuvring than religious zeal.
Penda’s Last Stand: The Battle of the Winwaed
In 655, Penda launched - what would be his last - campaign on Northumbria. With a large army, reportedly consiting of 30 warbands, with 30 royal or noble commanders alongside rulers such as Cadafael ap Cynfeddw of Gwynedd and Aethelhere of East Anglia. Penda also had the support of Aethelwald - the king of Deira and the successor of Oswine, who had been murdered on Oswiu's orders in 651. The cause for the war is uncertain, but one theory stats that Penda wanted to stop Oswiu reuniting Northumbria.
In the Historia Brittonum Penda sieged Oswiu at Iudeu; this site has been identified with Stirling, in the north of Oswiu’s kingdom (Northumbria extended up to the central belt of Scotland on the eastern side). Oswiu tried to buy peace - which we know from various other medieval conflicts doesn’t work - and Penda distributed the gold and treasure amongst his British allies. In addition to this gold and treasure, according to Bede, Oswiu’s son Ecgfrith was being held hostage “at the court of Queen Cynwise, in the province of the Mercians”, perhaps he was surrendered by Oswiu as part of some negotiations or arrangement.
Penda moved back south, however a battle was fought on the River Winwaed, near Loidis (modern day Leeds). The site of the battle isn’t yet confirmed, but there is a good claim to be had for the River Cock Beck in the ancient kingdom of Elmet (in the modern day West Riding of Yorkshire). The Cock Beck meanders its way through Pendas Fields. These fields are close to an ancient well called Pen Well, it lies on the outskirts of Leeds, before eventually joining the River Wharfe. This same Cock Beck whilst in flood also played a significant role in the much later Battle of Towton in 1461.
It may well be that Oswiu, after being freed of the siege, attacked Penda at a point of tactical vulnerability. However, there were also desertions in the Mercian camp - which probably comes as no surprise as they got their treasure from the siege. According to the Historia Brittonum, Cadafael of Gwynedd, “rising up in the night, escaped together with his army" (thus earning him the name Cadomedd, or "battle-shirker”). Alongside this Bede states that at the battle, Aethelwald of Deira withdrew and “awaited the outcome from a place of safety”. The reasons for the desertion are likely to be 1) they already had their booty, 2) they were already marching home so they had no inclination to fight. The Mercians were hammered, and Penda, alongside East Anglian king Aethelhere, was killed.
Legacy
Historian F. M. Stenton summed up Penda in his 1943 work, Anglo-Saxon England:
“He was himself a great fighting king of the kind most honoured in Germanic saga; the lord of many princes, and the leader of a vast retinue attracted to his service by his success and generosity. Many stories must have been told about his dealings with other kings, but none of them have survived; his wars can only be described from the standpoint of his enemies.”
Penda was the last great, pagan, Anglo-Saxon king and I believe with him died the last vestiges of English paganism as a political ideology and public religion. We never again saw an English pagan king in power. Yet, even though we know about him through the eyes of his enemies, critics and victims, there is still an enigmatic quality about him. This pagan king that came out of the mists of time to dominate the English midlands and to some extent the North, it has a mysticism around it and that’s why I think his presence is still felt today.
We can’t glorify the barbarity of the time, however, Penda’s military achievements are what makes him stand out. Yet, there is a softness in his acceptance of Christianity. There is a certain cynicism that comes with it, as we know the Vikings used the religion as a way of striking deals, that may be the case here but that can’t be the complete picture. There is so much more I want to know, alas, I’ll have to wait for more research or be comfortable with the fact that it is lost to the mists of time.
With that in mind, Penda will continue to loom large and fascinate me the more I study Mercia and the early Anglo-Saxon kings.
Notes
*The Heptarchy - was the division of Anglo-Saxon England between the sixth and eighth centuries into petty kingdoms, conventionally the seven kingdoms of East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Mercia, Northumbria, Sussex, and Wessex. The term was first used by the 12th-Century canon and author Henry of Huntingdon (1088 – 1157) in his Historia Anglorum and the term has been in continuous use ever since.
**Bretwalda - is an Old English compound word composed of “Bret” (also spelled “Bryt”), meaning “Britain” or “Britons,” and “walda,” which translates to “ruler” or “ruler of men.” Therefore, “Bretwalda” can be interpreted as “ruler of Britain” or “ruler of the Britons.” In Anglo-Saxon England, the title “Bretwalda” was used to refer to a dominant or overlord king who held significant power and influence over other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. (Definition taken from here)
Bibliography
The Venerable Bede, (731), Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (Ecclesiastical History of the English People), Penguin Classics, Penguin Publishing
Swanton, M. J., (2021), The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, Weidenfeld & Nicolson
Adams, M., (2025), The Mercian Chronicles: King Offa and the Birth of the Anglo-Saxon State, AD 630–918, Head of Zeus
Adams, M., (2014), The King in the North: The Life and Times of Oswald of Northumbria, Head of Zeus
Whitehead, A., (2021), Mercia: The Rise and Fall of a Kingdom, Amberley Publishing
Venning, T., (2013), The Kings and Queens of Anglo-Saxon England, Amberley Publishing
Higham, N. J., Ryan, M. J., (2013), The Anglo-Saxon World, Yale University Press
Stenton, F. M., (1943), Anglo-Saxon England, Oxford University Press